Questions 16 to 20 are based on the following talk.
Today we are going to talk about cross-cultural perceptions of time. Different cultures often have entirely different perceptions of time. The cultural anthropologist Edward T. Hall popularized the idea that cultures use time and view time in very different ways. The idea of the past, present, and future-- and the whole concept of scheduling or managing time--can be so different that it leads to cross-cultural miscommunications. In his 1990 book The Dance of Life, Hall writes, "Time is one of the fundamental bases on which all cultures rest and around which all activities revolve. Understanding the difference between mono-chronic time and poty-chronic time is essential to success. "
Hall’s notion of monochronism and polychronism can be understood as follows. Mono-chronic time is linear. Events are scheduled one at a time, one event following another. To a monochronic culture, this type of schedule is valued over interpersonal relationships. On the other hand, poly-chronic time is characterized by many things happening simultaneously. In addition, interpersonal relationships are highly valued in polychronic cultures.
Hall’s theory is that monochronic time can be found primarily in North American and Northern European cultures. These cultures emphasize schedules, punctuality, and preciseness. They also emphasize "doing" things. They are cultures that value productivity, that value getting things done "on time. " They view time as something that can be lost, kiiled, or wasted--or, conversely, they view time as something that can, or should, be managed, planned, and used efficiently.
Polychronic time, on the other hand, can be found primarily in Latin American, African, and Native American cultures. Their perception of time is more connected to natural rhythms. It is connected to the earth, to the seasons. This makes sense when we consider that natural events can occur spontaneously, sporadically, or concurrently. Polychronic cultures view time as being somewhat flexible. Since life isn’t so predictable scheduling and being precise simply isn’t that important. In addition, relationships with people are valued more than making schedules. There is more value placed on "being" than on "doing. "
Different cultural perceptions of time can lead to conflict, especially in the business world The idea of being late versus on time for a meeting, for example, might differ widely between an American businessperson and a Brazilian; the American businessperson might be far less tolerant of a Brazilian’ s late arrival. However, the Brazilian businessperson might be offended by an American’s insistence on punctuality, or on getting right down to business; the Brazilian would generally prefer to finish talking with colleagues first, and would not want to cut a conversation short in order to make an appointment.
Some traditional time management programs used in the business world might not translate well in another culture. Traditional time management programs in the business world emphasize to-do lists and careful scheduling. They are monochronic. However, a business in a polychronic culture might not adjust well to that system. Companies who impose these mono-chronic systems on places of business in polychronic cultures might be guilty of ethnocentrism, which means making their own ethnic or cultural values central and not valuing other values.
Edward Hall’s theory of monochronic and polychronic cultures has been challenged by some critics. Some people think it is overly general. They argue that within any cultural group we might find people who think of time differently. In other words, a primarily polychronic culture might have both monochronic and polychronic types of people. The same diversity among individuals might be found in a primarily monochronic culture. Critics of anthropologists like Edward Hall feel that it’s more useful to think of time differences among individuals, not just between cultural groups.
Question No. 16 Which of the following topics is the person talking about
20().
A. It over-emphasizes individual differences.
B. It fails to make his own values central.
C. It is ethnocentric.
D. It is overly general.